POLITICAL DICHOTOMY AMONG THE DOUBLE UNILINEAL CROSS RIVER IGBO, 1900-1976. Charles Okeke Okoko, PhD
Abstract
The basic political unit among acephalous Igbo communities was the Amala made up of consenting adult males above 18 years, served as the village assembly and legislated on the decisions of the traditional rulers; and on the problems confronting them. Patriliny, a social system through which descent, inheritance and leadership were traced to founding males of lineages predominated Igbo traditional political systems. Yet, the womenfolk did not participate visibly in decision making as it affected them. Contradistinctively, the womenfolk of the double unilineal Cross River Igbo, such as the Abam, Abiriba and Ihechiowa, were politically pervasive. Their decisions which were backed by women-specific deities, particularly the Udamini Ufuforo and social control mechanisms, such as Ibuo Okpu and Abiamkpu, were often incontrovertible. There were specific and gendered political functions and cultural exhibits that portrayed defined authorities. The paper concluded that the political visibility of the females was accounted for by socio-economic advantages vis-à-vis the matrilineal system where descent and inheritance were traced to apical mothers who, ab nitio, owned all lands; were more in number than the patrilineages; and the males held avuncular authority in proxy for them. For instance, among the Ozu Abam, there were twenty seven matrilineages that owned the greater percentage of lands more than the eight - Obi-asato - patrilineages whose members also belonged to their mothers’ matrilineages which gave them access to more lands. Authority, therefore, laid more on those who owned more lands and were more numerous. Additionally, an archetypical matriculture was discerned among the Amasiri and Ebunwanna northern Cross River Igbo communities. This core culture area portrayed a stricter form of matriliny where the elderly aunts, in an amitaculature, ran the affairs of the matrilineages and, especially, allocated lands. Oral interviews predominated in the research while written sources served complementary and subsidiary purposes.
“When Women Rebel: critical Appraisal of Social and Political Authority in the Gender Relations of Ozuitem, Southeast Nigeria”
Victor Ukaogo, University of Nigeria
Abstract
Central to issues of male domination and female marginalization in Igboland are cultural attitudes associated with political authority. This study examines the unexamined intrinsic nexus between social and political authority within the arena/ambit of gender relations in Igboland using Ozuitem-Bende women, southeast of Nigeria as case study. The study argues that beyond the matrilineal powers wielded by women in some Igbo social formations, women’s ‘social authority’ (evidenced in the activities of Umuada which includes declaration of sex strike etc) in several Igbo communities have grown into ‘political authority’ that provides them the platform to participate in village democracy and governance. In this, women have extracted a variant of ‘authority’ from the men for which no major decisions can be taken without their input. Using Ozuitem-Bende women as case study, this research affirms that the sheer number and unity of purpose of women including their ability and likelihood to impose sanctions on men especially in the area of detaching or distancing themselves from communal cultural feasts and festivals, refusal to take part in burials and above all, the declaration of sex strike remain instruments readily available to encourage men to ‘let go’ and involve them in decision making. Scholars of cultural and gender history seem reluctant or unable to investigate the curious link between men’s ‘natural’ authority and women’s ‘earned’ authority in the overall discussion about inclusion, marginalization and authority of women in Igboland. Using an admixture of primary (focal group and interviews) and secondary sources, the study concludes that accumulated social authority by women have made them co-travellers with men in village governance and community organization/mobilization.
‘Igwebuike’: A Viable Institution in Igbo Political System” By
Umunakwe, Bruno Onyinye, Aguzie, Declan O. & Korie, Michael Tochukwu.
Abstract
Government ruled by the people since antiquity proves to be an acceptable, functional and practical political system in the society. It is a system whereby elected representatives are accountable to the people and can as well be removed through recognized consents. The beauty of this government ruled by the people is that it deepens the dignity of the governed which derives its sovereignty from the people because these people are naturally endowed with rights. Being a viable system in politics, different groups of the world adopt different names for this government. The Igbos take the concept of ‘Igwebuike’ (though a colloquial) to connote government controlled by the people. The Igbos relate ‘Igwebuike’ from the political sphere to mean the political mandate or sovereignty recognised and given by the people. As a system in Igbo politics, ‘Igwebuike’ abrogates nepotism and tyranny but fosters equality, rule of law, justice and independence among the citizens. It also ensures that nobody is left out in the affairs of the community. The burden of this paper is to discuss the nature of ‘Igwebuike’ in Igbo political system. The study concludes that Igwebuike’ as a system operates on the ethical principles of equality, fairness and justice.
Primordial Igbo Local Administration: a historical analysis of women economic rights among the Oka and Nri between 18th and 19th centuries. By Anizoba, Emmanuel Chukwuemeka & Nganwuchu, Geoffrey Chiazo.
Abstract
Primordial administration among the Igbo span through history, between the periods of independent city states under several organized emperors and elders to the period of colonial invasion of Igbo territories. The period of self administration coalesces with several contributions of state actors in primordial governance whereby the monarchs and the elders govern entire territories. The women folk were accorded administrative recognitions based on ranks and strength of women organizations and leadership. Men oversaw community developmental issues like wars, farming and festivals through priestly directives. Kingship in most cases was not plutocratic as decision making was based on collective affirmations of the elders of the clans. In places like Abo and Igalla, city states emerged governed almost through administrative fiat of the Oba. However, by the turn of the 18th centuries, British invasion of the several city states in the Igboland led to pacifications of the lower Niger whereby administration of local areas fell from the local constituted fiefdoms and ruled by the invaders. Women participation in the act of governance in the villages was hampered. The colonialists disregarded local administrative customs and introduced warrant chiefs and paramount rulers who knew nothing about local administration in the hinterlands. This work seeks to evaluate the historical processes of primordial administration in Igboland and the level of women participation in the act of civil administration and their level of economic autonomy within those eras. Oka and Nri were selected as those areas held both the traditional and mythic roles in Igboland. The work employed both primary and secondary methods for data analysis and historical model for data presentation. The work discovered that women were actively participating in decision making within the primordial era and relapsed with the invasion of the British colonialism periods. The work recommends that women take up administrative roles as before and free themselves from contemporary male administrative chauvinism for the economic progress of present Igbo nation.
Gender and Notions of Autonomy in Igboland: A Metacritical and Critical Reading of Literatures on the Phenomenon of Female Husbandry.
Elizabeth Odachi Onogwu, University of Nigeria
Amuche Nnabueze University of Nigeria
and Simon Ezike, University of Nigeria
Abstract
The description of notions of autonomy in Igboland or anywhere else for that matter, can be subjective as it can range from economic, cultural to gender. Gender autonomy as conceptualized in this paper focuses on how women in traditional Igbo culture practice female husbandry as the improvisation of a male child personality, with the inherent functions and responsibilities thereon. This practice by implication, grants such women autonomy from patriarchy in many ramifications. But more than that, this complex, institutionalized system of gender bending has been elaborately documented by Ifi Amadiume in her ground breaking book, Male Daughters, Female Husbands and Nwando Achebe’s Farmers, Traders, Warriors, and Kings: Female Power and Authority in Northern Igboland: 1900-1960. Unoma Azuah’s literary novel, Sky High Flames taps into the practice of female husbandry too. This essay is a metacritical analysis of Ifi Amadiume and Nwando Achebe books that explored the processes of, and the nature of such relationships in Igbo land while critically analyzing Azuah’s novel that fictionalized the practice. Deploying cultural theory as a tool, the paper concludes by strongly arguing that the practice of female-female marriage in Igbo land is a strong indicator of strength and individuality of the female gender and the density of the Igbo culture that warrants its continuous study.
IGBO CHIEFTAINCY INSTITUTION IN DIASPORA: A STUDY OF EZEIGBO IN ANYIGBA, IGALA LAND
Akubo Aduku Alex.
Abstract
Kingship, kingdoms, domains, empires or chiefdoms are symbols of traditional societies across the world. Its structure, organization, ascension, sovereignty, authority and legitimacy varies from one society to the other. The Igbo traditional society has been regarded as acephalous and often considered as not having a hierarchical structure and lack of centrality. This study examine the emergence of Igbo chieftaincy institutions in non – Igbo societies (diaspora). The study investigates how Igbo decentralized political leadership and philosophy resonates among the Igbo migrants in Anyigba community of Igalaland, North central Nigeria and their relationship with the Igala traditional institution in their host communities and their autonomous chiefs at home (in Igboland). It also interrogates how the Ezeigbo navigates tension and assert authority within, and between, his diasporan populace and the Ogohi of Anyigba, Igalaland. The study further demonstrates how power and authority is appropriated and exercised and the modus operandi of Ezeigbo’s authority and influence, bearing in mind that all his subjects do not emanates from the same Igbo sub-ethnic enclaves. Using primary and secondary data, the study also appraises the organizational structure, the role of women and the youth and the right of ascension to the stool of Ezeigbo in Anyigba.
The Umuada Political Institution in Akpanya Area of Igalaland: The Diffusion, Adaptation and Relevance of Igbo Culture on Igala Communities
Abah Danladi, Kogi State University
Abstract
While much scholarly literature exist on the impact of centralised Igala polity on the Igbo, not much attention has been paid to the diffusion and impact of Igbo culture on Igala society. Though highly developed and influential in the socio-political and cultural mien of Akpanya Igala society, the Umuada women institution represents one of such neglected themes in the literature on Igala-Igbo intergroup relations especially in Akpanya area of Igalaland. Therefore, this paper examines the history of Umuada in Akpanaya area of Igalaland, taking into account the factors responsible for the diffusion, adaptation and relevance of this powerful women institution. This study compares and contrasts the practices and functions of umuada in Akpanya area of Igalaland with those of Igbo Nsukka communities to understand the patterns of similarities and differences germane for appreciating and nurturing harmonious inter-ethnic relations in contemporary Nigeria. The Umuada (women) institution in Akpanya region of Igalaland emerged as a result of the influence of Igbo-Igala inter-group relations driven mainly by marriage, plays crucial role in the promotion and sustenance of family and clannish ties, burials, marriages, installation of chiefs and peacebuilding. Primary and secondary sources of data shall be used. Primary data includes the use of oral interviews and archival documents while secondary data involved the use of published books, journals and newspapers. Collected data is analysed qualitatively through a multidisciplinary approach. The umuada phenomenon emerged in the pre-colonial era and diffused rapidly due to the proximity and influence of Igbo women in Akpanya area of Igalaland. They possess the power to impose fines and sanctions on men and women irrespective of status. By aggregating and mobilizing the women, the unmuada constitute a viable block for the promotion of checks and balances in traditional governance.
Gendered Separation of Powers in the Igbo Village Republics: A Thesis on the Judicial Role of the Umuada (Kinswomen) in Idemili Communities
Ifeanyi Ezeonu, Brock University, Canada
Abstract
It is commonly treated as settled knowledge that the 18th Century French Enlightenment philosopher, Baron de Montesquieu, is the original exponent of the notion of separation of powers. This notion promotes the idea that the three organs of government in a democratic republic - the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary - should hold separate and independent powers as a bulwark against political dictatorship. Thus, Occidental literature generally neglects non-Western forms of political arrangements where such distinct separation of powers existed as a moderating tool of governance, even before Montesquieu’s (1748) celebrated book, The Spirit of the Laws. This paper aims to achieve two objectives: (1) using a decolonizing framework, it will discuss separation of powers as an original and defining characteristic of the Igbo traditional political system, even before Montesquieu’s thesis, and (2) it will elucidate on the gendered nature of the Igbo traditional separation of powers, as well as the judicial role assigned to the Umuada (kinswomen) by the society. The paper will use the Idemili communities of Anambra State, Nigeria as its focus of analysis.
Ogboo Eswi Society in the Pre-colonial Ikwo Political Organization
Amiara, Solomon Amiara
Abstract
Ogboo eswi is a class distinction. It started when men began to celebrate Njioke as a sign of affluence and women who had excelled in the society sought to be classified by killing cows also, to the extent that it marked class distinction in Ikwo clan. This study situates Ogboo eswi as cultural in Ikwo historical context. It argues that Ogboo eswi is popular age grade system that exists with cultural symbols but has its members ready to checkmate men dominance in Ikwo political organization. It traces its origin to be as old as Ikwo itself and restricts its membership to only women who might have made cow sacrifices to their parents during and after burial. Through this process, Ogboo eswi becomes a socio-cultural group that challenges men dominated society in Ikwo. This study uses both primary and secondary data to chronicle Ogboo eswi society before the advent of Christianity in Ikwo. It found that Ogboo eswi society was formed as a response to women degradation by prominent Ikwo men who had attained certain material wealth by declassifying the women as being culturally dependable hence, the reason for these women organizing themselves into political class. The methodology adopted is thematic, analytic and historical description. The study concludes that Ogboo eswi is a society that exists to address class distinctions.
Colonialism and the Changing nature of indigenous Political organization of Okun-Yoruba, North Central Nigeria
Ojo, Ranti Matthew, University of Nigeria
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of the colonial rule on the political organization of Okun-Yoruba in the period under discussion. The extent of these changes on the political structure and the intergroup relations among the Okun-Yoruba has not been given due scholarly attention. The imposition of British colonial rule in Nigeria from about 1900 marked a watershed in the political organization of the Okun-Yoruba. Before this time, Nupe rule (c 1840-1897) had laid the foundation for the reorganization. British Colonial Administrative changes introduced in Okun area during the colonial period strengthened bitter rivalry and ethnic consciousness among the various groups in focus. These colonial arrangements had far-reaching consequences on the inter group relations as well as political grouping in Okunland. The British colonial arrangement did not take into consideration the pre- Nupe socio-political arrangement in Okunland but rather applied a new system of administration that was fashioned in line with Nupe “Ogba” system which was an antithesis of the pre-Nupe situation, and this of course stirred up sharp reactions from the various Okun groups. The influence of both Nupe and British imperialism in Okun-Yorubaland did not only alter the political landscape but they also changed the nature of intergroup relations of the entire Okun Yoruba nation. Both Nupe invasion and British rule brought socio-political and economic changes to the life of the people and challenged existing political arrangement and social institution. The political, economic, and social transformations that followed these external dynamics challenged old relations or power among the Okun and created new ones that often-generated tensions as the new administrative arrangements invariably favoured Owe (Kabba)group at the detriment of the rest Okun groups.
Political Alienation and Government-Society Relations in Igbo land by Chigozie Ifekwe Okonkwo & Joy Mgbeosorochi Ugwuanyi
Abstract
The emergence of British colonial administration shifted the locus of power and altered government-society relations in Igbo land. Before the advent of colonialism, the various people that subsequently constituted the Nigerian nation had well developed political and social institutions and structures that catered for the needs of the communities. These took into cognisance the culture, tradition, occupation and geographic conditions; and worked excellently in the regulation and support of the socio-political life of the people. These institutions provided avenue for the involvement of the members of the community in the management of the affairs of the society. The Igbos, egalitarian in nature, maintained small village republics, where every adult member of the society had a direct say in the governance of their society. Nonetheless, the creation of a government charged with protecting the lives, properties and trade of British traders, and later elites, set the tone for series of events and policies that would ultimately undermine the involvement of the people, and the community in the political process of the Igbo society. Using the theory of political alienation, the paper argues that the enthronement of British colonial administration in Igboland created conditions for the exclusion of the people from the political process, and thus, led to the shifting of the loci of power from the community to parochial interests. Employing qualitative research method, data will be collected from documentary sources, while analysis will utilize qualitative technique in the analysis of data. The result is expected to indicate that there has been progressive exclusion of the community influence over socio-political process, including control over the political system, economy and resources, external relations among others.
Aladinma/Oha: Evolution of an Igbo Indigenous System
Reginald Chikere Keke, Admiralty University of Nigeria
Abstract
The Igbo have evolved democratic and republican institutions that guaranteed the participation of the majority of its people in political life. The paper examines the evolution of the Aladinma/Oha as a distinctively indigenous participatory political organization among the Igbo in southeastern Nigeria. The Aladinma/Oha as the assembly of the people, embodies consensus oriented system of the Igbo indigenous political organization. As the highest assembly of the people at the village level, the Aladinma provides the Oha (the people) opportunity to deliberate, enact laws, try cases and pursue the welfare of the general population. In the absence of a centralized political authority controlled by individuals or group of individuals, the people (Oha) through the Aladinma (Assembly of the adults), provide opportunity for popular participation in the governance of the societies. The Aladinma/Oha system demonstrates the inalienable and exercisable power of choice among the Igbo and the value attached to the principle of consensus in which every qualified person participates in community life. The persistence of this indigenous political system in modern time, must be understood within the context of an egalitarian political, socio-economic paradigms that valued equity, individual rights and consensus.
Unveiling the (Oga) Queen Mother Political Institution in Oko, Western Igboland by Daniel
Olisa Iweze, University of Benin
Oko is located on the western bank of River Niger south of Asaba. It comprises seven villages and shares common ancestry, political and socio-cultural affinities with other Anioma towns and Igala descent of Osamala and Odekpe on the eastern bank of River Niger. Oko, like Asaba, Ibusa, Okpanam and other towns in Anioma practised the dual sex political institutions syblozed by the Oga (Queen mother) political institution has been in practice in Oko since the pre-colonial period. The Oga is the highest title held by women, sometimes, in parallel with the Eze, king. On the enthronement of the Oga, the woman ceased to be a woman and became transformed into a man; The Oga dressed like a man and became admitted into the men`s societies. The Oga, at times, could exist side by side with the Eze, but in the absence of the Eze, the Oga performed all the political, social and cultural functions with the assistance of the Onowu, the eldest woman and the Umuada, the daughters of the lineage. The Oga, being a man assumed male roles by marrying a wife and raising a family. The wife could have marital affairs by a man from the Oga`s family, but the children belonged to the Oga. This paper examines the Oga institution, its functions and how it operates in patriarchal society. The paper exposes the fluidity of gender roles of the Oga who on transforming into a king assumed the political and social status, rights and privileges of a king. In other parts of Aniomaland, the Oga institution is equivalent to the Omu and they performed similar roles, though with varied differences in their societies. Data are drawn from oral sources and close reading of extant literature.
The Political Influence of Atta and Achadu Igala on Igbo Nsukka Societies in the 19th and 20th Centuries
Abah, Joel
Abstract
This paper examines the influence of a centralized Igala kingdom on a decentralized Igbo societies of Nsukka using the Atta and Achadu political institutions of the Igala in the late 19th and mid-20th centuries. The paper demonstrates how and why several Igbo chiefs (Eze) sojourned to Atta for installation and confirmation of titles, and how the Igala political centralization did not find foothold in Igbo Nsukka land. The paper surmises that most of the Igbo chiefs were like chiefs without kingdom. Primary and secondary sources of data is used for this study. The primary sources include an in-depth oral interviews with the Atta and Achadu Igala royal clan, as well as the aged persons of the Nsukka society. This is in addition to relevant archival materials. The secondary sources includes; books, journal and article publications. Reasons for the spasmodic influence of Igala polity on Igbo Nsuka area is appraised from economic and socio-cultural perspectives.
Understanding Two Models of Precolonial Igbo Political Systems: The Republican and the Centralized
Raphael Chijioke Njoku, Idaho State University
Abstract
Igbo traditional systems of political organization were marked by two genres. The most popular type was the village republic associated with most Igbo communities. The outlier was the centralized prototype identified with a few border communities (Onitsha and Oguta) neighboring the Benin kingdom and Osomari, bordering the Igala kingdom. While the primary interest in this review is to understand why the centralized system did not spread to the other parts of the Igbo country, of vital importance is to appreciate that both in the centralized and republican systems, the implicit political ideology was the same – the decision-making process was for the people and by the people. In the two models, the Igbo upheld the intrinsic principle that age, gender, achievement, and cosmology were crucial in the political process.
“VILLAGE DEMOCRACY” AND THE PRAXIS OF POLITICAL INSTITUTION IN POST-COLONIAL IGBOLAND: TRENDS AND REALITIES by Bernard Steiner Ifekwe and Patrick Chukwudike Okpalaeke
Abstract
The concept of “village democracy” – an apposition to monarchical system – gained currency in the works of Ikenna Nzimiro, Adiele E. Afigbo and Victor C. Uchendu when these scholars made concrete and distinct classifications of existing political institutions and structures in pre-colonial Igboland. Despite the incursion of British colonial political ideals, the Igbo decentralized political structure persisted in many quarters, thereby, rendering the Indirect Rule system in Igboland ineffectual – unlike in the northern and southwestern regions that recorded some successes. Taking the foregoing background into perspective, we make modest attempts to investigate how the ideals of decentralization in pre-colonial and colonial eras have continued to impact upon the socio-political structures of Igboland land in a twenty-first century, where the realities of political permutations appear to be unfavourable for Igboland and its people. It goes further to examine what trends and present realities exist for the Igbo people in the larger scheme of political maneuvering given the persistent marginalization and seclusion of the Igbo people since the end of the Nigerian Civil War.
Igbo women in governance and development: A case of Women’s associations in Isuikwuato, Abia State
Nkiru Christiana Ohia, University of Nigeria
The contributions of Igbo women in governance and community development are often distorted by the picture of their subordination, low status and subservience in most literature. This is makes it difficult to appreciate them as key actors in administration and development both presently and in the pre-colonial days. The structures put in place to regulate human activities are gendered in Isuikwuato as well as in many Igbo societies. Division of labour, allocation of tasks, resources and responsibilities, political and social groups are also gendered. Governance in Isuikwuato is organized in a way that allows males and females to pursue the interests central to its existence without intruding on the special interests of the opposite gender. As a result of this understanding, Isuikwuato women control the activities that affect their existence and that of their children like the market administration, running of maternity homes, and overseeing peace keeping in the villages. Although women as individuals are not prominent in politics and rulership, they are represented in the political decision making of the land through Ndi Ada Nwanyi and Ndi Nyodi. These are very powerful arms of governance in Isuikwuato as their decisions are never overlooked. This paper will showcase various channels though which women have contributed and are still contributing to the development of Isuikwuato as a town and also to its people both at home and abroad.
Priestess and Power in Igbo Political Space
Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo, University of Nigeria
Abstract
Women among the Igbo of southeastern Nigeria are ordinarily not second class citizens. However, political power is being occupied and used largely by men. As a result, being a priestess among the Igbo offers women some level of authority in relatively patriarchal society. The prowess of a priestess in offering spiritual assistance to men in issues beyond their control places such category of women on different pedestrian. This study will engage selected Igbo priestess in oral interviews in random selected sample format with the primary objectives of showcasing how being an Igbo priestess could led to the exercise of power.
Strata of Female Exercise of Power in Coastal Igbo Societies: An Historical Analysis
Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo, University of Nigeria
Abstract
Nothing could be a major instrument of exercise of power in patriarchal Igbo societies except for the control of land as a major means of production. As a result, patriarchal control is more powerful in hinterland Igbo societies were men dominated the distribution of land. However, in coastal Igbo societies, men had no control of trade. As a result, powerful women emerged from success in trade and had more liberties than their counterparts in the Igbo hinterland. The present writer will be examining the rise of female economic as well as political power in lower Niger communities such as Oguta, Onitsha, Ossomari, Aboh, Atani and others. A comparative analysis of women prowess from coastal and hinterland Igbo areas will be carried out with the sole objective of justifying how environmental and geographic factors could influence women exercise of power.
Symbolism of the Pre-Colonial Concept of Anikanmadu Among the Ibusa People of Aniomaland
Odigwe A. Nwaokocha, University of Benin
Abstract
This work attempts a deep exploration of the concept of anikanmadu among the Ibusa people of Aniomaland, an Igbo group, who inhabit a section of the western bank of the Niger. It seeks to do this against the background of the fact that so much scholarly work has been done on ani, the earth goddess and a very strong deity all over Igboland yet the political connotation of ani (land) as the community has been ignored. This work focuses on an understanding of ani as a political force that is akin to the state employing the pre-colonial Ibusa political order as a case study. It focuses on locating and discussing some political power relations within the community by exploring the deeper political meaning of the concept that the community or state is greater than the individual. While noting that ani occupies a unique position in Igbo cosmology and exercises a great influence on behaviour, this work explores the deeper significance of ani, representing the community, as a kind of leviathan that towered above all in society and that commanded the respect of all. Focusing on the pre-colonial Ibusa community and using mostly primary sources, this work also explores the anikanmadu group as a very important political organ that operated in secret and mostly at night while enforcing the will of the community in a way that demonstrated the supremacy of the community over all. The work concludes that the concept of anikanmadu that underlined the secret executive organ also known as anikanmadu was instrumental in maintaining the oneness, wellbeing and sovereignty of the community while ensuring that societal rules and laws were applied and sanctions placed on recalcitrant members of the community.
THE MORNACHICAL INSTITUTION AMONG THE ANIOMA: A CASE STUDY OF ASAGBASHIP IN ASABA.
Igwebuike Colins Okolo, University of Nigeria
Abstract
This paper focuses on the evolution of an apparently foreign monarchical institution known as the Asagba: a morphed monarchical political power, among the Asaba people of Anioma Igbo group west of the Niger, in Delta State Nigeria. It does this against the background that studies dealing with the consequences of foreign cultural intrusions into other culture areas need close attention if we attempts a study of how the introduction of Asagba institution in the 19th Century produced a new political equation, changed the socio- political structure of the town, diluted the old system and led to many contestation of power between the old and the new that continues to this day.
The work argues that while the introduction of the Asagbaship gave the Asaba polity the semblance of monarch in the form of an Eze Ofu Ani, nevertheless, a major move away from the known Igbo republican system. It also represented a serious unsetting of the political system in a way hitherto unimagined and pitched the council of Eze title holders and the gerontocratic set-up in Asaba on one side represented by the age long traditions, now in contesting subjugations, against the new forces of the Asagba, on the other. The work extends the debate that struggles between the two forces continue to shape the Asaba polity.
Using both primary and secondary sources, the paper concludes that the cultural historical entanglement of the two sides in the power local governance and the socio-economic development in Asaba
POWERS AND ROLES OF INDIGENOUS INSTITUTIONS IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN AFIKPO
Farouk Agha Uche
Abstract
Abundant in colonialist and imperialist literature awash with racism is the view that the traditional African-Igbo society had no ethical or moral principles. That was why Basden (1983) categorically maintained that the word morality had no significance in the Igbo vocabulary and that the Igbos are not patters of morality. Lord Lugard on his part, and in the same vein, is said to have referred to the people of Southern part of Nigeria as those with no ethics and no principles of conduct. In order to debunk these Eurocentric views this paper highlights how indigenous institutions settle conflicts amongst individuals and groups in Afikpo an Igbo community in the South-East. The Afikpo model of conflict resolution has been recognized as an alternative system of justice in South-East Nigeria. The model is rooted in cultural tradition. Indigenous social and political institutions as channels for conflict resolution are emphasized. The model has been widely recognized by the state and non state actors especially those who are in the business of conflict management. The paper also emphasized that indigenous institutions have power in resolving conflicts in Afikpo. The findings of this study is that the model is victim-centered, victims, offenders and their relations, and the entire community, are involved in defining harm and repair. The paper adopted primary and secondary research methods. The paper recommends that Afikpo model should be studied by government and private organizations who are involved in conflict resolution and adopt the relevant aspects in resolving conflicts in this present world.
Social Institutions and Political Centralization in Igbo Traditional Society
Oparaocha, Ndubuisi Onesimus
Abstract
The structure of Igbo socio-political organization is slightly convoluted which gives a differing opinion on Igbo social institutions. This study aims at exploring the concept of Igbo social institutions and political centralization with a general overview of the hierarchical/patriarchal structures of governance within its systems. The paper x-rayed the basic units of Igbo social institutions and the fundamental principles underlying the functionality of these units. Igbo traditional society has been a communalist and patrilineal structured system with political culture that expresses the values, attitudes, norms and other cultural products that shape and governs political life of the Igbo society. To the non-Igbo indigene, there is a contending view on the socio-political structure among these Igbo communities which are rigid and flexible within the comity of the Igbo people thus this paper looked at the quasi-democratic republican system of traditional Igbo political organization which gave equality of social conscience among its polity for good administration. The paper also examines the power sharing structure between the title-holders, elders, umunna, umuada and age grade. Using the technique of documentary analysis, in-depth library research methodology and interviews were necessary. The general objective of the paper is correcting some of the gaps surrounded most of the previous reports on the Igbo socio-political worldview. In particular, the paper plans to educate the reader on some standards and philosophy of the Igbo society in Nigeria. In making this contribution it is assumed that the reader may not have known much about the culture of the Igbo people. So it is expected that at the end of the presentation, a clear understanding of the Igbo Social institution and their political worldview has been made clearer.
POLITICAL CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZED SOCIETIES: A COMPARATIVE EXAMINATION OF IGBO AND NEIGHBOURING ETHNIC GROUPS PRE-COLONIAL SOCIO-POLITICAL STRUCTURES
Terna Akambe Nenge
Abstract
Igboland is the home of the Igbo people and it covers most of Southeast Nigeria. They are also surrounded on all sides by other ethnicities namely: the Bini, Warri, Ijaw, Ogoni, Igala, Tiv, Yako, Ibibio, among others. Some of these ethnic groups shared a common pre-colonial socio-political structure with the Igbo, i.e. administering decentralized political system of autonomous communities. However, external factors like the Jihad of 1804 and the abolition of the slave trade in 1807 tried to upend this political set up and replace it with centralized structures. The attempt was met with stiff resistance and cultural protest.
Adopting exploratory and analytical research method, the paper examines the Igbo cosmology in a comparative analysis of other ethnic groups like the Igala and Benin that had centralized political leadership and the Tiv people who also administered decentralized socio-political structures.
The paper discovers that while some of the peoples mentioned above were influenced by both external and internal factors to effect cultural and socio-political changes to their cosmogony, the Igbo and the Tiv remained adamant due to their egalitarian nature which favored autonomous decentralized political structures.
Rethinking the Igbo e nwe Eze Philosophy
Chiedozie Obia
Abstract
Pre-colonial Igbo society consisted largely of autonomous villages and village groups ruled via diffused authority without any sort of formalized permanent or hereditary leadership system save in some parts of Igbo land where through their interaction with other pre-colonial nationalities adopted a centralized system of governance. Over time, this largely decentralized system of power structure practiced among the Igbo have made many to insist that the “Igbo have no king” which in turn have made some other commentators argue that the pre-colonial Igbo society was stateless in nature thus arguing among other things that there was no law nor order.
This paper through a historical methodology which also will be narrative, thematic and analytical interrogates the popular saying that “the Igbo have no king” in the light of historical facts. The paper relies on extant literature on Igbo Society and primary sources accessed from the archives.
This paper reveals that the Igbo e nwe Eze philosophy isn’t entirely the case in all parts of Igbo land as some parts of Igbo land through their interactions with their neighbours adopted kingship institutions and those who were said to be without ‘kings’ had accountable leadership structures that guaranteed an egalitarian society where law and order were upheld.
Ofala Festival
Chinwe Iwuchukwu
Abstract
Of great importance to the integration of Igbo society, is the traditional Igbo life based on the nuclear family, which extends to the Umunna and membership of kinship groups et al. The system of the colonial democratic rules introduced to Igbo society has not solved Igbo political leadership puzzle. Some of the festivals in Igboland go a long way to streamline the culture of Igbo society. Festivals equally are windows into a people's culture and expressions of their common ideologies. With the advent of Christianity and European ideas in Igboland, they were viewed as fetish or idolatory practices and in some extreme cases abolished. Ethnocentrism often may lead to misrepresentation or misinterpretation of some aspects of a people's culture. This paper takes a look at the Ofala festival of the Onitsha kingdom in Anambra State in South East Nigeria, as a tool to reveal power and leadership ideology of Igbo people. It aims at examining the Igbo socio-cultural institutions, icongraphy,power ideologies even as expressed by the Ofala festival, as a tool in Igbo power and leadership. It looked at the icons and social narrations within the context of Onitsha leadership art set in motion in terms of performance art. It identified and analyzed the ideals of power and leadership projected on the relevant art forms. The significance of the Ofala festival situates the icons and the visual narratives within the iconographical/iconological fields in Igbo political institutions as represented by the Onitsha leadership hierarchy to express their world view of power and leadership vis-a-vis the Igbo society. The paper therefore, contributes to the relevance of art in Igbo power and leadership.
Deities as the Third Arm of Traditional Igbo Government
Okonkwo C. Eze & Emmanuel C. Alaku
Abstract
Igbo studies, especially, the political organizations have enjoyed robust scholarly attention in historical discourse in recent times. The Igbo, unlike their immediate neighbours such as the Benin (Edo) and the Igala, evolved two parallel systems of government in the pre-colonial period. While some practised centralized system of government, a reasonable number of Igbo communities contended with ‘statelessness’. Some reasons for the reign of peace and harmony amongst the latter group have remained largely uninvestigated and unappreciated. The role of deities as the judicial arm of government in defence and execution of the law has been sketchy in received deficit-prone literature. This extant gap appears to have beclouded most Igbo scholars who having been trained in mission schools have taken up the gauntlet to stereotype and profile deities and their roles in the traditional Igbo political system. This surviving Eurocentric view calls for a re-interpretation so as to broaden the frontiers of our knowledge of this religio-political institution in justice-delivery among the Igbo in the ‘stateless’ group. This study, therefore, seeks to investigate the role of deities in the sustenance of village democracy and autonomy in Igboland as well as fill the lacuna in extant literature. In order to deepen our understanding of the subject-matter of the study, it is segmented into sub-headings, for proper content analysis. It is envisaged that this study will stir up deeper insight into this more or less dormant area of Igbo history and also arouse scholarly attention thereto. The study has quarried information from both primary and secondary sources of history together with self-report technique or observational experience so as to give a more balance account of this aspect of Igbo history. Data garnered from the above sources were organized, analyzed and presented through descriptive and analytical approach.
GENDER AUTONOMY IN EZENWANYI CULT IN CONTEMPORARY NORTHERN IGBO
CHRISTOPHER O. OKWOR; EKENEDIRICHUKWU EZE; COLLINS I. UGWU; CHRISTIAN I. NNADI
Abstract
Spiritual explosions in Igboland since the end of the civil war have created conditions for the emergence of several cult groups. One of such is Ezenwanyi which has in the recent time gained prominence. What started as a call to serve spiritual needs of the people has grown to include other interests. The cult’s uniqueness, as the name literally implies (woman king), is its exclusive reserve of membership for women. This has raised a number of questions; Why this female chauvinism? Is it a counter to other male cults? Do the gods also recognize gender specialty in discharging certain spiritual functions? Is it possible in a supposedly patriarchal society such as the Igbo, to have a spiritual cult group without the men? Is it part of female empowerment? Apparently, these questions have not been adequately addressed in literature. Therefore, in this study, the authors explored the notion of gender autonomy in Ezenwanyi. Using descriptive narrative, this phenomenon was studied in Enugu-Ezike, Obollo-Afor and Okpuje. It was discovered that apart from claims of call to service, peer influence, economic interest, social relevance, culture revival, have continued to generate interests for Ezenwanyi cult to the point that it has been proliferated.
“Have and Not-Have”: The complicated place of women in power structure in Igboland
Josephine Ngozi Akah and Anthony Chinaemerem Ajah
Abstract
Several contributions in African Studies make claims of power egalitarianism in societies in Africa. We rather show in this paper how women in the largely patriarchal Igbo society both have and do not have power. This implies a complication and contradiction. On the one hand, women are conceptualized as naturally second-class to men, with almost nothing to contribute towards societal improvements. Consequently, they scarcely hold political leadership roles. On the other hand, women serve(d) as medicine women, priestesses/diviners, rain makers, etc. These are crucial responsibilities that should translate to political power-positions; but they remain largely male-defined, male-dominated, or untransformed. So, why are women sidelined in core power structuring in Igboland despite holding some of these influential positions in religious-cultural circles? To what extent would their better involvement through these power-positions have smoothened out the complication already observed? These are the questions we address in this study. Qualitative method of research was used for the study. Data were collected from primary and secondary sources. Data were analyzed using phenomenological, critical and dialectical approaches. We argue that women remain sidelined in the core power structure in Igboland because of entrenched mythic ideology of natural male superiority. This means that if women’s contributions through specific crucial positions were not structurally disregarded to sustain male-dominance, there would have been no complications regarding their place in political power structure. Improving on this will better empower women by default; and the society would be better for it both in terms of general social progress for everyone, and in terms of sustainability of social gains.
COLONIALISM, ‘AUGUST MEETING’ AND THE REAPPROPRIATION OF WOMEN POLITICAL AGENCY, AUTONOMY AND AUTHORITY IN SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA
Ifeanyi Onwuzuruigbo
Abstract
Extant literature reveals growing research interest in ‘August Meeting’, the annual homecoming or convention of Igbo women hometown associations of Southeastern Nigeria. Just as it has received applause for driving community development and peace building, it has also been berated for promoting interpersonal and communal conflicts. But the intricate connection between colonial rule, contemporary Igbo women associations and ‘August Meeting’ has been rarely explored. As is well known, precolonial Igbo political structure conceded power and autonomy to women and their organisations. Supported by Christianity, colonialism and its patriarchal norms of power distorted and later dismantled Igbo political institution, thus dispossessing women of power and authority, especially in the public arena of power. The 1929 Aba Women Riots in Southeastern Nigeria were not just opposition to colonial rule. They marked the beginning of efforts to re-insert women in the calculus of power and return women associations as critical actors in the sphere of governance, administration and development of local Igbo communities. This paper reframes ‘August Meeting’ as the culmination of initiatives, kickstarted in colonial times, to reappropriate female power and authority and reassert the autonomy of women associations in contemporary politics and governance of local Igbo communities. In doing so, the paper first locates women in the nexus of power and politics in precolonial African but, more importantly, Igbo political affairs. The second part captures the distortions and dismantling of women political agency under colonial rule while the third re-imagines and then reframes ‘August Meeting’ as the consequence of initiatives taken by women to re-exert political agency, re-establish their autonomy and reappropriate political power and authority in the governance and administration of local communities in Igbo land.
IKENGA: INTERROGATING THE INFLUENCE OF COMPETITIVE INDIVIDUALISM IN IGBO POLITICS
Unaegbu, Jephthah Elochukwu
Abstract
Did the ritual of safe-guarding a physical effigy whose presence motivated a spiritual ideology of self-success occasioned the emergence of respected warrant chiefs in Igbo colonial politics? This study answers this, and also examines the truth-value of the subaltern posture which the tangible effigies and other appurtenances of Ikenga, the Igbo indigenous culture of competitive individualism, have assumed under the sphere of Eurocentric modernism; and the nature of the application of the transcendent form of the ideology and its impact on Postcolonial Igbo politics, especially in the emergence of the Igwe kingship institution, a carry-over from colonial indirect rule. The study utilized the documentary research method, and, hypothesized a pulverization of first power under the framework or analyzing tool of the theory of individualism. The paper found out that colonial and post-colonial impacts of the object studied sustained both the centralizing tendencies in Igbo colonial politics and the acephalous tendencies in Igbo postcolonial politics. It is recommended that the Ikenga spirit and worldview be made tangible in visual icons or audio phrases with deferring regulations for fair play. When this is sustained and popularized, accelerated political achievements of individuals will be tempered by respect for leaders and the led. Neither king nor commoner will be disregarded and a healthy centralized neoliberal political structure would gradually subsist from the new perspective and this eclectic structure will help redefine Igbo thought and life for the better.
INTERROGATING FEMALE DOMINANCE OF A HEALING CULT IN PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY: MEDIUMSHIP AND INYAMA IN IGBOLAND
Okoli, Anuli Blessing; Okwor, Christopher Okonkwo, Onah, Tobias
Abstract
The rapidly growing number of female religious functionaries called Inyama in the last two decades in Igbo society has prompted concerns among scholars to inquire about the possible shift in the traditional Igbo worldview. Inyama are mediums who offer dedicated services in the shrines of deities by communicating divine messages or benefits to people through spirit-possession. They are gradually gaining prominence in Igbo society. Yet, there is dearth of literature on Inyama. Therefore, this paper investigates, from a gender perspective, female dominance of the cult in a patriarchal Igbo society. The study conducted Key Informant Interviews randomly with members of the cult in Nsukka Northern Igboland who have been in the cult for at least six years. A session of Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was conducted in Obollo-Afor at the shrine of Idenyi which involved the priest, Inyama, and other devotees of the deity. Data generated from both methods were descriptively analysed. The disposition of women for spirit possession, divine calling, practice of divination, and possession of healing powers, are non-human factors that often combine to shape the figure of Inyama. Increase in the number of persons seeking spiritual solutions to their problems, proliferation of healing homes, are human factors that promote Inyama in Igbo society. Inyama is one area in Igbo religion where the gods and the spirits do not discriminate between sexes. And this has elevated the status of women in Igbo society. This indicates that the claim of patriarchy as a system where power and authority are controlled by men is not totally true in Igbo religion and society.
Legitimisation and Perspectivation as Discursive Strategies in the Destruction of Igbo Traditions and Cultures
Ifeyinwa David-Ojukwu; Florence O. & Caroline O. Nwaka
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to show the nexus between semiotic resources and the success of British imperialism using Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God as primary sources of data to bring to the fore, the systems of colonial rules employed to destroy the Igbo traditional institutions. Through the institutions of Christianity and western education, the hitherto Igbo organised systems of leadership, arbitration, and closely knit family units exemplified in the leadership styles of Umuofia, Mbanta and Mbaino were destroyed and replaced with dictatorial indirect rules. The semiotic resources exploited to legitimise such debasements and destructions of what the natives hitherto held sacrosanct are equally examined. By utilising van Leeuwen’s and Ruth Wodak’s discursive strategies, the semiotic resources engaged by the British imperialists to legitimise western cultures as better options out of squalor, fetishism, barbarism and darkness are understudied. Further explications, using insights from secondary sources, will be made to understudy how social events as influencing the natives to exacerbate their deities, traditions and everything that binds them together are achieved. This study is significant in exposing the bane of the disorganised political structures which characterise the post colonial Igbo society.
GENDER EQUALITY ADVOCACY AND DIALOGUE: A RE-READING FROM IGBO LITERATURE
Eze, Rosemary Chinwe
Gender equality campaign which started decades ago, spread like wide fire all over the globe especially in Africa. This campaign caught the attention of the academia and the literary writers. Igbo poets joined in the league of the advocacy and have been active in the campaign ever since. This work tends to examine through some advocacy poetry how this gender equality campaign has succeeded in Igboland. The findings are that in spite of all sensitization and propaganda, gender equality has not taken enviable root in Igboland. As available literatures show, this failure is on account of the people’s strong value systems and peculiarities. Added to this is the women’s fear of the repercussions of the violation of some sensitive Igbo gender role divisions. The Igbo life is woven around such belief in the presence and operations of gods, goddesses, shrines, oracles and deities. The belief and fear for these institutions is very strong in the land. To date, Igbo women have not developed spiritual muscle to live above such fear of the spiritual. It is also the submission of the Igbo literary writers that the campaign failed because there is no local, state or national legislation or law protecting women who breach some of these obnoxious Igbo cultural practices and traditional observances against women.
REPUBLICAN MONARCHY: EXPLORING THE DILEMA OF CHOICE
UNUAJOHWOFIA
Henry Obakore and EDEGBE, Kennedy Omoruyi
Abstract
At the height of its power, the influence and impact of the Great Benin Empire on its neighbours, herein referred to as the fringe states, transcends socio-political and economic subjugation and domination. In the creation of intuitive processes leading to the formation of political and social strata of the most of the fringe states, there is a noticeable shift from absolute monarchy and the centralization of powers to that of democratic republicanism. In this regard, this paper argues that the decentralised socio-political structures of most of the fringe states are derived from the need to abandon the Benin socio-political model. Using the Urhobo people as a case study, the paper draws illustrations and instances embedded in the oral arts of the Urhobo people to buttress that the motifs of fear of dictatorship, personal liberty and the need to subtly repel the overriding influence of the Benin royal court on the intellectual indoctrination of the young ones, influence the Urhobo people’s choice of republicanism and decentralisation of socio-political structures. Further, the paper foregrounds that through the negative portrayal of the themes of sycophancy and loyalty to the Benin court and inordinate ambition among some Urhobo people, the monarchical model of the Benin Empire is imported to the political landscape of the Urhobo people. These create a conflict of choice, and the quest to harmonise the people’s republican aspirations and to avoid the wrath the rejection of the imposed structure from Benin may bring, lead to the creation of republican monarchy among the Urhobo people. Aesthetically, the paper concludes that the need to avoid extinction of the Urhobo culture and worldview becomes the dynamics that merge that enable the Urhobo people merge republicanism with monarchism.
OJEBEGO/Nkea bu Nke Anyi: Dynamics of Igbo Traditional Political Systems and Influenced Leadership Choices in Contemporary Igboland, a Prognosis
Chinedu N Mbalisi, Nnamdi Azikiwe University
Abstract
The Igbo is known for their traditional political systems and ways of influencing leadership choices, ontologically designated “village democracy”. Decisions are unanimously reached in the Igbo indigenous political structure which runs from the family level to the clan. Mechanisms of the political system of the Igbo are based fundamentally on the principle that ‘what touches all must be approved by all’. Consensus amongst the people decided by voice votes comes with great responsibility, accountability and probity with great reverence, loyalty and obedience to the gods. In recent times, the voice votes appear to have followed a dangerously disturbing dimension. The exclamation, Ojebego/Nkea bu nke anyi when interpreted connotes acceptance and adoption of a person as candidate to be voted for, is seemingly influencing political leadership choices in contemporary Igbo and Nigeria. The chorusing of Ojebego/Nkea bu nke anyi mostly comes from ignorant crowd, influenced by moneybags and political jobbers with the intent to sway political outcomes. Using the dimensional kinetics of relative ordering theory, this paper interrogates the dynamics of the Igbo traditional political system and the influence of echoing Ojebego/Nkea bu nke anyi to political leadership and developments in contemporary Igboland and Nigeria. It posits that the influence of echoing Ojebego/Nkea bu nke anyi in election/selection trajectory, poses a threat to the choice and quality of leaders in our polity in recent times. The paper adopts the narrative and analytical methods of writing history and uses both oral and secondary sources. The qualitative research methodology is used while the work is presented chronologically.
Political Power of Masquerade in Igbo culture
Uchenna Jude Ugwoke and Roseline Ifeoma Eze
Abstract
The masquerade in Igbo culture is one of the most organized and
endowed spiritual groups in Nigeria. As spirits and as a group, their
contributions as one of the village administrators and managers of
human welfare are central to the ability of households and
communities to handle conflicts and entertain people. This paper
aims at studying the roles of masquerade as agents of reconciliation
and vanguards of development in the old and modern Igbo land. Data
for this research was gotten through primary and secondary sources.
From the findings, Igbo masquerade like other group’s contributions
in the community make them relevant in the political, economic,
religious and social life of the Igbo people. Their roles in the areas of
entertainment and social control are acknowledged. Their
developmental efforts are remarkable in the families and
communities. In families and communities, their roles are prevalent,
in finding solutions to many conflicts. In the community, they fight
crime and ensure peace and security in the land. Suggestions were
proffered on how to use the masquerade as an agency of community
development to improve the status of the Igbo society.
POLITICS AND POLITICAL POWER ACQUCSITION IN IGBOLAND IN THE 21ST CENTURY, THE ROLE OF DEITIES
Eze Jonas
Abstract
From the earliest to the contemporary times, deities have been one of the important features of the Igbo society, and the Igbo believe greatly in the potency or efficacy of their deities. Globally power and influence belong to the realm of politics and have remained highly competitive from time out of memory. Right from the days of colonialism, the struggle for political power and influence have been entrenched features of the Igbo society. As the Igbo believe, whatever happens in the physical realm is decided by and controlled from the spiritual quarters. Therefore, although the Igbo politicians are Christians who believe in the existence of Supreme Being (God), who is All-knowing, All-powerful, All-creative and invisible, they seem to believe more in doing the business of their politics through the ministry of the deities or lesser gods and goddesses in the land. The paper using quantitative and qualitative research methods seek to find out why the Igbo politicians (including those who claim to be ardent Christians patronize the deities and goddesses of the land in their carrier as Politicians. The findings are that they see the Christian God as too remote and too gentle for the serious business of politics. To them, praying to their Christian God only in the face of a serious business like politics was akin to one entering a shop when one is penniless and is compelled to beg for his goods. In these shrines they offer sacrifices, sprinkling blood, believing as they do that blood is the life giving fluid and drink of the gods and expect instant visitation by these deities and elemental spirits.
Trends in Igbo Traditional Political Systems: Perspectives on Umuada Institution in Post Colonial Igboland
Chiemela A Mbalisi
Abstract
Leadership in contemporary Igboland has become contentious among scholars and intellectuals. Igbo communities before colonial rule was based on consultative assembly of the council of elders whose dominance of cultural precepts sustained the longevity of Igbo cultural heritage. Presently, these heritages have been exposed to extinction with the importation of colonial vestige. Colonialism and globalisation brought a lot of changes in the leadership pattern, style and authority extant in our society today. The impact of colonialism on Igbo traditional leadership is exemplified in political instability, massive corruption, winner takes all syndromes etc. Despite the political changes, the institution of the Umuada has continued to wax stronger in most Igbo communities, keeping intact the authority it posses, leadership heritage of the Igbo society. The wind of change that came with colonialism and globalisation seem not to have had much impact on the institution, hence it has remained undaunted, resolute and uncompromising. This paper investigates the unique nature of Umuada institution with a view to know the factors that have sustained them over time. It compares traditional leadership in Igboland within the pre-colonial and post colonial times. The paper posits that the unwavering character of Igbo women in the pressure is largely responsible for them being almost not affected in their operational milieu. Primary and secondary sources were used. The narrative and qualitative method of research was also used.
ỤMỤADA AND THE EXERCISE OF POWER IN IGBOLAND: THE NEXUS BETWEEN LANGUAGE, LEADERSHIP AND WORLD VIEW
Eze, Roseline Ifeoma, Egbe, Cajetan Ikechukwu, Ossai, Chidimma Rosemary
Abstract
Ụmụada in Igbo land since the olden days is understood as a social and political group that perform significant roles in community development and stabilization. It is about the only group in Igbo political power structure that have so much power concentrated in them. They exercise legislative, executive and judicial powers. The Ụmụada make laws that affect members of the community. They go all out to implement the laws they have made and punish erring members of the community. They also sit in judgment to try members brought before them, and make peace among members of the community who are in dispute. This exercise of power and authority is geared towards the stabilization of the clan or community where they owe their origins. This paper examines the ransom detre for the exercise of such power by the Ụmụada which is not extended to women living in their matrimonial homes. It also explores the nexus between language and the exercise of such power and connects this to Igbo world view and cosmology. Thus, this paper lends its voice to gender ideology, political organization and interplay of power among the Igbo in south East Nigeria.
Exploring the Rich Socio-Cultural Heritages of Oracles in the Pre-Colonial System of Igboland
Ozioko Peter Egbuniwe, University of Nigeria
and Akalonu Victor Oluchukwu, University of Nigeria
Abstract
Oracles, also called Deities, were another powerful institution superimposed on the socio-political fragmentation of Igboland during the pre-colonial era. The Oracle became a formidably influential instruments of force, social cohesion and peace. It was the tradition that people approached these oracles in supplications in order to obtain divine justice and verdicts. This is clearly opposed to the judicial abracadabra rocking the judicial system today in which cases are inexplicably delayed and adjourned for no just cause and travesty of justice committed by judges in the so called Temple of Justice. Many of such Oracles still exist today despite the fact that some of them were destroyed by the colonialists during their invasion. The most famous and most influential among them was Ibini Ukpabi which was situated at the center of Igboland. This paper, therefore, attempts to discuss the roles of the Oracles in the pre-colonial administration of Igboland. This period was seen as the natural and the serene state of nature before being polluted with the Eurocentric mindset of civilization occasioned by colonialism. The paper uses qualitative research methodology with published and unpublished works and oral traditions neatly dovetailed in the work.
Women are not Marginalized in Igboland: A Critical Interpretation of Uche Nwaozuzu’s Ajari
Godstime I. Eze
Abstract
The conceptualization of gender roles within the African milieu has been institutionalized from the patriarchal viewpoint of which Igboland is inclusive. The counternarratives of gender discourse is what informed the nexus of this research in an attempt to put the records straight. Relying on Uche Nwaozuzu’s Ajari as paradigm, the research explores the qualitative method of analyzing and interpreting this play text within the Igbo context and setting. This study will adopt the cultural theory which breathers on the explanation of literary texts within the context of their sociocultural consciousness and political awareness. Insisting that the Igbo women are not marginalized as many posit, the researcher affirms that they possess political, social and religious powers as opposed to the myth of women marginalization in Africa and beyond. Hence, the situation of the female gender in a typical Igbo society is likened to a bottleneck system whereby the head (man) is dependent on the neck (woman). Female in the Igboland have powers politically and socially as well as revered against the general conception of African women.
Women in Conflict Resolution: The Role of Ngwa Women in the Traditional Land Dispute Settlement
NWAMUO Bright Enyinnaya
Abstract
Land in the Ngwa Society was a major source of dispute and conflict. During the pre-colonial and colonial periods villages fought over land ownership and boundaries and these led to the loss of lives and destruction of property. Different mechanisms were adopted in settling such conflicts. But the role of Ngwa women in land dispute resolution has not been adequately discussed. Women were not projected as major instruments or agents in conflict resolution. This paper interrogates the role of Ngwa women in land dispute settlement in the Ngwa society, the approaches adopted by these women in resolving such conflicts. This study takes a historical look at the pre-colonial and colonial Ngwa society and the role of women in conflict resolution. It focuses on land disputes, causes, and the silent role of women in managing and resolving such conflicts. This paper has been divided into sub-sections. The objective of this study is to examine the involvement of women in the traditional Ngwa conflict resolution process. This study used primary and secondary sources. It has suggested that this method of conflict management and resolution be revived and integrated into the modern day conflict resolution methods.
Political Dynamics of Institutionalization of Ekpe Society in the Northern Igbo of the Cross River Basin Since Colonial Time
Ukomi, Macaulay Peter
Abstract
Ekpe Society ‘meaning Leopard, tagged secrete cult’ by the colonialists was one of the most significant creations of the Ejagham civilization in the pre-colonial Africa. In effect, it became transfused and institutionalized as cultural value into parts of Igbo land lying along the Cross River basin through the Efik traders of the Old Calabar who usually, ferried the Cross River for economic purposes. The historiography of the socio-political developments of Afikpo and Ohaffia districts cannot be replete without a point that makes allusion to the image evoke by this fearsome forest beast. The paper argues that, Ekpe society changed the Igbo cosmology particularly through the transmission of knowledge of Nsibidi dating back to the earliest times without any antecedence to the Latin or Arabic roots. Nsibidi was a rebuke to those who claimed over the centuries that Africa has no history. Ekpe performed both legislative and judicial functions. For instance, Ekpe was used for enforcement of traditional authority, maintenance of peace and order, entertainment, and above all, recovery of debt. The methodology adopted by this paper is anchored on qualitative descriptive historical analysis, using primary and secondary sources of data.
A Philosophical Rationalization of Initiative-Democracy and Covenant-based Covenant Authority as Inspired by Igbo Non-Philosophy
Francis O. C. Njoku
Abstract
The paper first studies some aspects of the Igbo non-philosophy such as cosmology, myth, language, culture, belief system, folklores, and the order of importance of the individual and entities. It then goes ahead to conceptualize ‘initiative-democracy’ and ‘covenant-based authority’ as implicit in non-philosophy. Second, by making explicit what is implicit in non-philosophy, the author hopes to unveil some grounds for answer to the question as to why political centralization was/is resisted in Igbo society. Initiative-democracy is a form of social structure; covenant-based authority is a way of securing the goods of persons and communities. Both social engagements, as existential and dispositional attitudes in organizing human affairs within the environment of occurrence of a people for whom reality is hugely encountered from the stand point of process, will largely tend to abhor a centralized system of control. The method of hermeneutics is adopted in this study in order to reveal the philosophy hidden in the non-philosophical corpus of some aspects of Igbo life.
Political Constraints in British Africa: Quantitative
Evidence from Native Authority Institutions
James Robinson, University of Chicago and Jack Paine, University of Rochester
Abstract
The nature of African political institutions before and during colonial rule is subject to considerable debate. We provide a new perspective that stresses the historical prevalence of political constraints and their persistence under colonial rule. We assemble extensive new data on British colonial administration in Africa around 1950 and demonstrate two novel patterns. First, Native Authority institutions, the practical implementation of so-called “indirect rule,” were quite heterogeneous and often characterized by influential councils. Second, we additionally collected new data on constraints on precolonial rulers to show that colonial institutions are highly predictable. Solo chiefs are mostly confined to the relatively few areas with precolonial unconstrained rulers. By contrast, most of the rest of British Africa was governed by councils (sometimes with a chief, sometimes not). Our evidence does not support the hypothesis that either pre-colonial or local colonial political institutions are the source of “despotism” in post-colonial Africa. More likely, the creation of arbitrary states made it very difficult to aggregate the many heterogeneous local institutions of accountability into legitimate national institutions which would have constrained potential dictators.